GESTALT PERCEPTION

Gestalt psychology was founded in Austria
and Germany in the early 20th century, and
while some of its ideas (such as that objects seen
form similarly shaped traces in the brain) have
long been abandoned, it has had an important
revival in its approach to visual recognition.
Modern Gestalt theory takes a holistic
approach to perception, on the basic principle
that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts,
and that in viewing an entire scene or image, the
mind takes a sudden leap from recognizing the
individual elements to understanding the scene in
its entirety. These two concepts—appreciating the
greater meaning of the entire image and grasping
it suddenly and intuitively—may at first seem at
odds with what is known about how we look at
images. (The principle that we build up a picture
from a series of rapid eye movements to points of
interest is explored more thoroughly on pages
80-81.) However, in reality, Gestalt theory has
adapted to experimental research, and, despite
its sometimes vague assertions, offers some
valid explanations about the complex process
of perception. Its importance for photography
lies mainly in its laws of organization, which
underpin most of the principles of composing
images, particularly in this and the next chapter.
The word “Gestalt” has no perfect English
translation, but refers to the way in which
something has been gestellt, that is, “placed”
or “put together,” with obvious relevance
to composition. As a way of understanding
perception, it offers an alternative to the
atomistic, iterative way in which computers
and digital imaging work, step-by-step, and
stresses the value of insight. Another principle
from Gestalt is “optimization,” favoring clarity
and simplicity. Allied to this is the concept of
pragnanz (precision), which states that when
understanding takes place as a whole (“grasping
the image”), it involves minimal effort.
The Gestalt laws of organization, listed in the
box, go a long way toward explaining the ways
in which graphic elements in photographs, such
as potential lines, points, shapes, and vectors, are
“completed” in viewers’ minds and understood
to animate and give balance to an image. One of
the most important and easy-to-grasp laws is that
of Closure, usually illustrated by the well-known
Kanizsa triangle (illustrated opposite). We can
see this principle time and again in photography,
where certain parts of a composition suggest a
shape, and this perceived shape then helps to
give structure to the image. In other words, an
implied shape tends to strengthen a composition.
It helps the viewer make sense of it. Triangles
are among the most potent of “closure-induced”
shapes in photography, but the example
illustrated opposite is the somewhat more
unusual one of a double circle.
As we’ll see in more detail when we come to
the process of shooting (in Chapter 6), creating
and reading a photograph heavily involves the
principle of making sense of a scene or an image,
of taking the visual input and attempting to fit
it to some hypothesis that explains the way it
looks. Gestalt theory introduces the idea of
regrouping and restructuring the visual elements
so that they make sense as an entire image—also
known as the “phi-phenomenon.” However,
whereas Gestalt theory is used in instructional
design—for example, to eliminate confusion
and speed up recognition (diagrams, keyboards,
plans, and so on)— in photography it can play
an equally valuable opposite role.
As we’ll see when we come to Chapter 6,
Intent, there are many advantages in slowing
down the way people view a photograph, so as
to deliver a surprise or to involve them more
deeply in the image (Gombrich’s “beholder’s
share”, page 140). For example, the principle of
Emergence (see box) is valuable in explaining
how, in a sudden moment, the mind comprehends
something in a photograph that was visually
“hidden” (pages 144-145, Delay, go into this
in more detail). Normally, in presenting
information, making the viewer’s mind work
harder is not considered a good thing, but in
photography and other arts it becomes part of
the reward for viewing.